Ukraine Part 3: Rodents underfoot

 

Signs of the Sandy Mole Rat

In the dry habitat of steppe the main sources of plant food are the leaves, flowers and seeds of the steppe vegetation and their underground storage organs in the form of roots and rhizomes. The ground is usually very hard however, which makes the kind of tunnelling moles are famous for difficult. Rodents on the other hand come equipped with perfect tools for not so much tunnelling as gnawing through the ground, and several groups of rodents have adapted to the lifestyle. In Europe and Asia these are the blind mole rats in the family Spalacidae.

These weird rodents get their name from the complete absence of eyes, which are covered by skin. Ukraine is home to five species. They have a similar lifestyle, digging extensive burrow systems containing nesting chambers, latrines and storage chambers, often many tens of metres across and many metres deep, which is where they survive the cold winters deep underground and protected from frost. Fairly large for rodents, they are mostly around the size of a brown rat or larger. They tend to be solitary animals, only meeting for the breeding season, and as they spend almost their entire lives underground their main natural enemies are snakes and animals such as foxes or other animals that can dig. Not quite as long lived as the famous (and unrelated) Naked mole rat of Africa, some individuals are still on record as reaching 15 years in captivity.

Sandy Mole Rat Spalax arenarius

One of the rarest of Ukraine’s mole rats, and endemic to the country, the Sandy Mole Rat Spalax arenarius is found east of Odessa around the lower Dnepr in sandy soils, mostly within the Black Sea Biosphere Reserve. Outside the 55km2 of total area where it can be found the few remaining populations are highly fragmented and threatened by conversion of habitat to forestry. A solitary species, as far as is known, it breeds only once each year. Currently classed as Endangered by the IUCN, the assessment is 14 years old and needs updating.

S.arenarius range

Balkan Mole Rat Spalax gracus

Not quite as threatened, but still classed as Vulnerable, the Balkan Blind Mole Rat Spalax graecus is slightly misnamed, as it does not come from Greece but rather has a range just east of the Carpathian mountains overlapping Ukraine, Romania and Moldova. Not quite as specialised as S.arenarius, it inhabits steppes, pastures and orchards, often with northern exposures. It occurs at low densities of usually only a few individuals per hectare.

S.graecus range

Podolsk Mole Rat Spalax zemni

S.zemni mounds in habitat

One of the more widespread of Ukraine’s mole rats, the Podolsk mole rat S.zemni has a range that extends over much of central and northwest Ukraine. It is mainly found on virgin steppes, but does not mind some woodland and indeed feeds on the roots of tree seedlings, although it also feeds on roots of many other plants including agricultural crops. Very little is known of its behaviour, as with other mole rats, and although it has a large range it is classed as Vulnerable and is probably declining as a result of agricultural intensification.

Podolsk Mole Rat range

Greater Mole Rat Spalax micropthalmus

One of the largest of all mole rats, the Greater Mole Rat S.micropthalmus can reach 30cm long and 570g in weight. It favours softer soils with black earth, avoiding sandy or loamy soils, and can be a pest. As a single individual can cache 15kg of food in its store chambers the impact of a large population can be large. Its main range is in the east of Ukraine extending into Russia.

Greater Mole Rat range

Lesser Mole Rat Nannospalax leucodon

Classed in a separate genus, the Lesser Mole Rat Nannospalax leucodon may actually be a complex of cryptic species. It has a large range mostly to the south of Ukraine through Greece and the Balkans, where it prefers loose soils to dig extensive burrows. As with the other species ploughing is destructive to its burrows, but it can use orchards and pastureland as well as steppe grassland. Given its range it is probably not a threatened species as a whole, but as with its relatives is probably at least locally threatened by conversion of habitat for agriculture and construction.

Lesser Mole Rat range

Northern Mole Vole Ellobius talpinus. Note the beady eyes

Not at all closely related to the blind mole rats, but with a similar lifestyle, the Northern Mole Vole Ellobius talpinus is much smaller, around 13cm long and a weight of 70g. Unlike the blind mole rats it has well developed eyes. It is also more sociable, with colonies usually consisting of a queen, several males plus one or two litters of young, with a maximum group size of up to 20 individuals, though half that is more usual. Within Ukraine it is found in the southeast of the country.

Northern Mole Vole range

So much for subterranean rodents. Among the grasses above ground there is also a large variety of rodents of various sizes, and those are what I will cover next.

Ukrain Part 2: Squirrels of the grasslands

Although from the perspective of a resident in Britain or most of western Europe the word “squirrel” immediately conjures up a picture of an animal in a tree, terrestrial and usually burrowing squirrels are widespread across the world in semi-deserts and grasslands . Most of these belong to the tribe Marmotini, which includes the highly colonial prairie dogs of North America and the less sociable, but larger, marmots. Ukrains with its extensive grasslands is home to four species, the large Bobak Marmot Marmota bobak and no less than three species of smaller ground squirrels or sousliks in the genus Spermophilus. 

Bobak (Steppe) Marmot

Bobak Marmots are very large for a squirrel – reaching over 7kg and a body length approaching 60cm, and like their relatives are keen burrowers. Their burrows can reach 3m deep and over 20m long, and constitute important refuges for other steppe animals, as well as affecting hydrology of the steppe. They are vegetarian, feeding on grasses, seeds, and various herbs, and are active by day. 

They are sociable creatures, with a typical family group consisting of an adult male, a few females, plus offspring of various ages. Young disperse to start families of their own at around 3 years old. Within a given area the families will usually be within visual or auditory contact, as they need to keep a sharp lookout for predators. These might include wolves, foxes, and various birds of prey such as Eastern Imperial Eagle, and in the east of their range even Snow Leopards. 

M.bobak range

The range extends from Ukraine in the west, where ploughing up of grasslands has severely impacted the range, into central Asia, with most of the modern population being found in Kazakhstan. In history they are most important as, along with related species, being a natural reservoir for bubonic plague. 

Much smaller than marmots are the various species of susliks. These small ground squirrels are mostly around 25cm long or less. Like the marmot they hibernate for long periods – often more than half the year – which is how they avoid the long cold winters. Given its location Ukraine is home to no less than three species, although they are adapted to slightly different habitats and climates and consequently mostly do not compete directly.

European Souslik

Currently classed as Endangered, The European Souslik S.citellus has the most westerly range, extending as far west as Austria and north into Poland. 

European Souslik range

Like their larger relatives the marmots they feed on grasses, seeds and flowers, but also feed on various invertebrates. They are dependent on short vegetation which enables them to keep watch for predators such as raptors, foxes, or weasels and agricultural intensification has seriously impacted their range. They can spend 6 months of the year in hibernation in their burrows. These are not as deep as those of the marmots but can still extend for many metres underground. 

Spotted Souslik

Preferring taller and coarser grassland than the European Souslik, Spotted Sousliks otherwise have a similar lifestyle. Their range extends more to the north and east into European Russia and Poland where grassland can be found. It faces the same sort of problems as its relative, and is currently classed as Near Threatened. 

Spooted Souslik range

Little Souslik

Not actually much smaller than its relatives, the Little Souslik is the most arid-adapted of the three species, and is found in dry grassland and semi-desert into central Asia. Given the extremes of climate it has to deal with it not only hibernates but also aestivates in the summer, with the result it may only be active above ground only a few months out of each year. The years of excavation of their burrows results in characteristic mounds used by generations of animals, and these can be many metres in diameter. From these low mounds the souslik keeps watch over the surroundings, ready to give a warning whistle when danger is seen. 

Little Souslik range

Ploughing up of the steppe and changes in farming practises, especially grazing and livestock numbers, is the main threat to all these grassland rodents. At least they are diurnal and consequently known to local people. Below ground, another set of rodents is far less obvious, and it is to these I will turn next time.

Wildlife of Ukraine Part 1 - ecology and background

 

In view of the terrible situation in Ukraine at the moment I decided that my next series of posts will be dedicated to the wildlife, both obvious and not-so-obvious, to be found in that country. I hope my readers appreciate this and will be inspired to aid as they can the people and nature of this often misunderstood country.

To start with the general layout of habitats, in terms of its ecosystems Ukraine can be divided into three bands of habitats running southwest to northeast. In the south, including the Black Sea coast, dry steppe grassland covers about a third of the country, and extends eastward into central Asia. North of that is a forest steppe zone, with rather more rainfall and at least some tree cover in places. Finally, the north and west of the country is (at least before deforestation from agriculture)   comprises mixed deciduous and coniferous forest, with extensive bogs and wetlands in the north on the border with Belorus and Poland. Most of the country is more or less flat, but in the west the Carpathian mountains are steeper and densely forested, and extend from Ukraine through Poland into Slovakia and south into Romania.

Demoiselle Crane

Ukraine is a land of rivers – over 23,000 in fact. Most of course are fairly small, but they include a short section of the Danube and the second greatest (by volume) river in Europe, the Dnieper. These both eventually form major river deltas on the Black Sea which are important wildlife areas. These large rivers are the natural habitat for some of the worlds most famous (and largest) freshwater fish, the multiple species of sturgeon that produce caviar.

Beluga Sturgeon

In the past the steppe grassland in the south was wide open to repeated waves of invaders from the east, most famously Genghis Khan and his successors, and before that in the last days of the Roman Empire the peoples that became known to history as the Huns. Being too dry for most forms of arable farming without irrigation, the grasslands were natural horse and livestock country. In more recent times arable farming has covered most of the country, resulting in extensive conversion of steppe and grassland for growing wheat and sunflowers for oil among other crops. Much of the wetland has been drained as well for farming and this has inevitable impacted the native wildlife. In addition to this building of hydroelectric dams has impacted fish migrations. and most famously of all the Chernobyl Power station, which was built on the banks of the Pripyat, a river which also flows through Belarus before joining the Dnieper,  has serious implications for radioactive pollution of the rivers and eventually the Black Sea itself.

This agricultural expansion, along with hunting and other forms of persecution, has resulted in localised extinction within Ukraine of several large mammals in particular. Eurasian Wild Ass, Wild Horse, Saiga Antelope, European Bison have all become extinct, although reintroduction projects are now in place for some of them. In the prehistoric period lions also lived at least in the south, preying on the then-abundant wildlife.

Saiga Antelope

In this series of posts I cannot cover every species found in Ukraine, but I aim to cover as wide a variety of mammals, birds, reptiles and insects as I can. I hope my readers appreciate this primer.

Next time I will start with the multitude of rodents, some specialised or unfamiliar, that call Ukraine home.

Of syrup and large carnivores

Asiatic Lions, Gir Forest, India

Sitting on many pantry shelves in Britain is a tin of Tate & Lyles Golden Syrup, much employed in the creation of puddings, poured on porridge, and many other uses. Only when you examine the label will you find a rather strange picture – a dead lion surrounded by buzzing insects, and the motto “Out of the strong came forth sweetness”. Using a dead and decaying predator for liquid sugar seems a rather odd advertising gimmick, especially one that has not been changed since 1883, so what is going on? This post is dedicated to the curious history of lions outside Africa, and how they wound up on a tin.

To start with, where do lions come from? Genetic analysis suggests the lineage of all modern big cats split from other felids around 10 or so million years ago, with ancestral lions appearing around 2 million years ago in Africa, at about the same time our own lineage started to look more like present day people rather than bipedal chimpanzees. These ancestral lions dispersed out of Africa across Asia, eventually even reaching the Americas where the American form, Panthera atrox, is frequently found at the famous Rancho La Brea site (which by the way is in the middle of Los Angeles surrounded by traffic). However, as part of the mass extinction at the end of the last glaciation these Northern and American lions died out, leaving only the living species. These were not just confined to Africa though – they lived in open country across Arabia, into the Middle East as far as central India at least. How far east they ranged is not clear as they became part of human stories and mythology practically from the start, but the famous Lion Dances in China and various references in many South Asian cultures suggests they were certainly not unknown.

Mosaic depicting Heracles and the Nemean Lion

By the earliest historical period though lions outside Africa lived in the Middle East, Iran, Anatolia and northern India, and were much persecuted. They also just survived in Europe in the Balkans and possibly further east into Central Asia – lions figure in decorative Scythian art from the earliest historical period, and they were definitely present in the steppes and grasslands of Europe as far west as Hungary well into the Bronze Age. In Greek mythology the first of the twelve labours of Herakles ,in penance for the murder of his wife, was to kill the invincible Nemean lion (he trapped it in a cave and strangled it with his bare hands). Other lions appear in other Greek myths, and it was alleged that lions attacked the camels supplying the troops of the Persian invasion in 480BCE.

In the Middle East however lions survived in greater numbers, and that is how they came to wind up on a syrup tin. The quotation is from the Bible, as part of the story of Samson in the Book of Judges. Incidentally, I cannot help feeling that “Judges” is a really bad translation of the original Hebrew, as it conjurs up pictures of a courtroom and someone passing sentence – “Champions” or even “Superheroes” would seem to give a better approximation of the contents of the book to me. Judges details the semi-legendary figures from the period between Moses and the establishment of the Israelite Monarchy under David. The story starts with Samson going down to Timnah – Philistine Territory – because he had fallen for a girl he had fallen for:

-        When he came to the vineyards of Timnah, suddenly a young lion roared at him. The spirit of the Lord rushed on him, and he tore the lion apart barehanded as one might tear apart a kid. But he did not tell his father or mother what he had done. Then he went down and talked with the woman, and she pleased Samson. After a while he returned to marry her, and he turned aside to see the carcase of the lion, and there was a swarm of bees in the body of the kion, and honey. He scraped it out into his hands, and went on, easting as he went.”

Samson and the Lion

The wedding feast does not go well. Samson makes a bet with the young men of his wife’s relatives:

-        Samson said to them” Let me now put a riddle to you. If you can explain it to me within the seven days of the feast, and find it out, I will give you thirty linen garments and thirty festal garments. But if you cannot explain it to me, then you must give me thirty linen garments and thirty festal garments. So they said to him “Ask your riddle, let us hear it.” He said to them “Out of the eater came something to east, out of the strong came something sweet”.

Unable to guess the riddle, they finally persuade Samsons new wife to wheedle the secret out of him, and that is when things go really wrong:

-        The men of the town said to him on the seventh day before the sun went down “What is sweeter than honey? What is stronger than a lion?” And he said to them “If you had not ploughed with my heifer, you would not have found out my riddle”. Then the spirit of the Lord rushed on him, and he went down to Ashkelon. He killed thirty men of the town, took their spoil, and gave the festal garments to those who had explained the riddle. In hot anger he went back to his fathers’ house. And Samsons wife was given to his companion, who had been his best man.

A pretty horrible story, as I am sure you agree, but it does show that in this early period at least lions were familiar enough to figure in popular stories.

Later, the boy David volunteers to Saul to fight Goliath, explaining why he is not afraid:

-        “Your servant used to keep sheep for his father; and whenever a lion or a bear came, and took a lamb from the flock, I went down after it and struck it down, rescuing the lamb from its mouth, and if it turned against me I would catch it by the jaw, strike it down and kill it. Your servant has killed both lions and bears, and this uncircumcised Philistine shall be like one of them, since he has defied the armies of the living God” (I should point out that at this point the said armies are holed up in the hills, scared to come to open battle against a vastly better equipped Philistine army.)

To go back to the beginning of this post, in 1881 an enterprising sugar refiner named Abram Lyle found he could sell the syrup produced as part of his cane sugar refining process to grocers all over London, and invented the label that the tins carry to this day. The business later merged with another sugar refiner, Henry Tate & Sons (The Tate Gallery in London was founded with a donation from the family). In 2010 the whole business was sold to American Sugar Refining, Inc, leaving the famous tins as simply a brand label.

Part 8: Losses and recoveries

 

Skylark

Around 40,000 years ago the last glaciation culminated in the Last Glacial Maximum. Modern humans by this time had already reached Australia, and this time saw the end of the Neanderthals, Denisovans and other pre-modern humans who had lived all across the world. They did not disappear entirely however – before they vanished as separate peoples they produced children with modern type humans and their DNA lives on in all of us to this day.

Grey Partridges

How much modern humans were the direct cause of the total extinction or range restriction of the animals I have talked about is not always clear, but a combination of rapid climate change and the selective targeting or large animals by modern humans (who unlike Neanderthals had developed distance weapons such as arrows and other sophisticated technology) must be a main contender. The extinction of elephants and rhinos especially would have resulted in massive expansion of close-canopy forest as the climate warmed compared to earlier periods, a disaster for animals and birds adapted to warmer grasslands. Ironically, it was the invention of agriculture that might have helped them, as fields would have sufficiently emulated the old elephant-created open grassland to provide habitat for what we now think of as “farmland” birds such as Skylarks, finches, buntings, partridges or even Great Bustards.

Great Bustard

In the past few decades an increasing number of different species rendered extinct in this country being reintroduced or having their numbers greatly supplemented by additional released animals. For example, Red Kites were restricted entirely to Wales and were on the verge of extinction until a carefully planned and monitored release programme extended them across the UK and they are commonly seen along many of our motorways as they scan for roadkill. More recently an equally successful reintroduction of White-Tailed Eagles has restored them to Scotland, and a release programme has started on the south coast of England where the first released juveniles are approaching breeding age.

White Tailed Eagle

More problematic is the reintroduction of mammals.  Beaver reintroductions were controversial for a long time – not without reason from the point of view of a farmer whose fields of maize border a river – but they are now in several areas as either fully wild animals or at least as self-supporting animals in fenced areas. The next big areas will be carnivores, of which Wild Cat and Lynx are possibilities. True Eurasian Wild Cats are almost extinct in Scotland as a result of persecution and hybridisation with domestic cats, but their natural range was throughout the UK. There are discussions of possible reintroductions either in Wales or the South West. Lynx are key predators of Roes Deer, which will certainly get them points with arable farmers and foresters, but they are unfortunately also quite capable of killing sheep and as a result sheep farmers are putting up a lot of opposition. Larger predators such as Wolves are talked about, but outside of a fenced enclosure I cannot see wild Wolves being let loos in the UK sadly, although in western Europe Wolves are actually doing very well at the moment – in fact they have already reached the North Sea coast and if they were only slightly better long distance swimmers they would be showing up in southeast England in the next few years.

Eurasian Beaver

The crowded and heavily farmed areas of Britain make rewilding over truly large areas in this country very difficult, but on a smaller scale quite a lot can be done. Conservation grazing is standard practise on reserves to preserve habitat, but usually this involved domestic livestock of various “primitive” breeds such as Exmoor Ponies, Highland Cattle, or indeed, as in the Avon Gorge, Domestic Goat. In 2022 the Wilder Blean Project in Kent plans to use European Bison (inside a large, fenced enclosure) for the same purpose. However, the largest rewilding type project in the UK is currently the Knepp Estate, which has pioneered many new ecological practises by using a mixture of domestic livestock (Longhorn cattle, Exmoor Ponies, Tamworth Pigs) plus deer (Red, Roe, Fallow) to affect the habitats. As a result, Knepp is now home to the largest colony of Purple Emperor butterflies in the UK, and is also a successful site for the Turtle Dove. Knepp is also home to a reintroduction project for White Stork, which became extinct in the UK in the Middle Ages and has now bred successfully (14 chicks fledged in 2021). Knepp is now a role model for what rewilding might look like in a crowded island like Britain in which there is little room for majopr landscape-scale projects in much of the country.

White Stork in Sussex

This brings an end to this series of discussions, I hope readers have enjoyed them, over the next few months I will be looking at the histories of reintroductions in the UK and the lessons that can be learned from how they turned out.